[95] Intramuscular or intravenous injection [edit] Injection of hydroxycobalamin is often used if digestive absorption is impaired, [2] but this course of action may not be necessary with high-dose oral supplements (such as 0.51.0 mg or more), [97] [98] because with large quantities of the vitamin taken orally, even the 1% to 5% of free crystalline B 12 that is absorbed along the entire intestine by passive diffusion may be sufficient to provide a necessary amount
Targeted agents like 5-HT4 agonists (tegaserod, prucalopride), guanylate cyclase-C agonists (linaclotide), and NHE3 inhibitors (tenapanor) modulate motility and pain signaling but face limitations such as side effects (e.g., diarrhea, cardiovascular risks) or insufficient long-term data
Uzlova N, Mnozil Stridova K, Merta D, Rychlik I, Frankova S
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